The MNIST-1D Dataset
=======
[Blog post](https://greydanus.github.io/2020/12/01/scaling-down/) | [Paper](https://arxiv.org/abs/2011.14439) | [GitHub](https://github.com/greydanus/mnist1d)
Most machine learning models get around the same ~99% test accuracy on MNIST. The dataset in this repo, MNIST-1D, is 20x smaller and does a better job of separating between models with/without nonlinearity and models with/without spatial inductive biases.
_**Dec 5, 2023**: MNIST-1D is now a core teaching dataset in Simon Prince's [Understanding Deep Learning](https://udlbook.github.io/udlbook/) textbook_
Quickstart and use cases
--------
* Getting started
* [Quickstart](https://github.com/greydanus/mnist1d/blob/master/notebooks/quickstart.ipynb) ([Colab](https://githubtocolab.com/greydanus/mnist1d/blob/master/notebooks/quickstart.ipynb))
* [Building MNIST-1D](https://github.com/greydanus/mnist1d/blob/master/notebooks/building-mnist1d.ipynb) ([Colab](https://githubtocolab.com/greydanus/mnist1d/blob/master/notebooks/building-mnist1d.ipynb))
* [Pip installation (3 lines)](https://github.com/greydanus/mnist1d/blob/master/notebooks/mnist1d-pip.ipynb) ([Colab](https://githubtocolab.com/greydanus/mnist1d/blob/master/notebooks/mnist1d-pip.ipynb))
* Example use cases
* [Quantifying CNN spatial priors](https://github.com/greydanus/mnist1d/blob/master/notebooks/mnist1d-classification.ipynb) ([Colab](https://githubtocolab.com/greydanus/mnist1d/blob/master/notebooks/mnist1d-classification.ipynb))
* [Self-supervised learning](https://github.com/greydanus/mnist1d/blob/master/notebooks/self-supervised-learning.ipynb) ([Colab](https://githubtocolab.com/greydanus/mnist1d/blob/master/notebooks/self-supervised-learning.ipynb))
* [Finding lottery tickets](https://github.com/greydanus/mnist1d/blob/master/notebooks/lottery-tickets.ipynb) ([Colab](https://githubtocolab.com/greydanus/mnist1d/blob/master/notebooks/lottery-tickets.ipynb))
* [Observing deep double descent](https://github.com/greydanus/mnist1d/blob/master/notebooks/deep-double-descent.ipynb) ([Colab](https://githubtocolab.com/greydanus/mnist1d/blob/master/notebooks/deep-double-descent.ipynb))
* [Metalearning a learning rate](https://github.com/greydanus/mnist1d/blob/master/notebooks/metalearn-learn-rate.ipynb) ([Colab](https://githubtocolab.com/greydanus/mnist1d/blob/master/notebooks/metalearn-learn-rate.ipynb))
* [Metalearning an activation function](https://github.com/greydanus/mnist1d/blob/master/notebooks/metalearn-activation-function.ipynb) ([Colab](https://githubtocolab.com/greydanus/mnist1d/blob/master/notebooks/metalearn-activation-function.ipynb))
* [Benchmarking pooling methods](https://github.com/greydanus/mnist1d/blob/master/notebooks/benchmark-pooling.ipynb) ([Colab](https://githubtocolab.com/greydanus/mnist1d/blob/master/notebooks/benchmark-pooling.ipynb))
* Community use cases
* [TSNE: compare clustering of MNIST-1D vs. MNIST](https://github.com/greydanus/mnist1d/blob/master/notebooks/tsne-mnist-vs-mnist1d.ipynb) ([Colab](https://githubtocolab.com/greydanus/mnist1d/blob/master/notebooks/tsne-mnist-vs-mnist1d.ipynb))
* Community use cases
* [A from-scratch, Numpy-only MLP with handwritten backprop](https://colab.research.google.com/drive/1E4w9chTkK-rPK-Zl-D0t4Q3FrdpQrHRQ?usp=sharing)
* [Simon Prince's _Understanding Deep Learning_](https://udlbook.github.io/udlbook/) textbook uses MNIST1D as a core teaching example
* Send me a Colab link to your experiment and I'll feature it here.
Installing with `pip`
--------
``` shell
pip install mnist1d
```
This allows you to build the default dataset locally:
```python
from mnist1d.data import make_dataset, get_dataset_args
defaults = get_dataset_args()
data = make_dataset(defaults)
x,y,t = data['x'], data['y'], data['t']
```
If you want to play around with this, see [notebooks/mnist1d-pip.ipynb](https://github.com/greydanus/mnist1d/blob/master/notebooks/mnist1d-pip.ipynb).
Alternatively, you can always `pip install` via the GitHub repo:
``` shell
python -m pip install git+https://github.com/greydanus/mnist1d.git@master
```
Comparing MNIST and MNIST-1D
--------
| Dataset | Logistic regression | MLP | CNN | GRU* | Human expert |
| ------------- | :---------------: | :---------------: | :---------------: | :---------------: | :---------------: |
| MNIST | 94% | 99+% | 99+% | 99+% | 99+% |
| MNIST-1D | 32% | 68% | 94% | 91% | 96% |
| MNIST-1D (shuffle**) | 32% | 68% | 56% | 57% | ~30% |
*Training the GRU takes at least 10x the walltime of the CNN.
**The term "shuffle" refers to shuffling the spatial dimension of the dataset, as in [Zhang et al. (2017)](https://arxiv.org/abs/1611.03530).
-----------
The original MNIST dataset is supposed to be the [Drosophilia of machine learning](https://twitter.com/ivanukhov/status/639122460722528257) but it has a few drawbacks:
* **Discrimination between models.** The difference between major ML models comes down to a few percentage points.
* **Dimensionality.** Examples are 784-dimensional vectors so training ML models can take non-trivial compute and memory (think neural architecture search and metalearning).
* **Hard to hack.** MNIST is not procedurally generated so it's hard to change the noise distribution, the scale/rotation/translation/shear/etc of the digits, or the resolution.
We developed MNIST-1D to address these issues. It is:
* **Discriminative between models.** There is a broad spread in test accuracy between key ML models.
* **Low dimensional.** Each MNIST-1D example is a 40-dimensional vector. This means faster training and less memory.
* **Easy to hack.** There's an API for adjusting max_translation, corr_noise_scale, shear_scale, final_seq_length and more. The code is clean and modular.
* **Still has some real-world relevance.** Though it's low-dimensional and synthetic, this task is arguably more interesting than [Sklearn's datasets](https://scikit-learn.org/stable/modules/classes.html#module-sklearn.datasets) such as two_moons, two_circles, or gaussian_blobs.
Dimensionality reduction
--------
Visualizing the MNIST and MNIST-1D datasets with tSNE. The well-defined clusters in the MNIST plot indicate that the majority of the examples are separable via a kNN classifier in pixel space. The MNIST-1D plot, meanwhile, reveals a lack of well-defined clusters which suggests that learning a nonlinear representation of the data is much more important to achieve successful classification.
Thanks to [Dmitry Kobak](https://twitter.com/hippopedoid) for this contribution.
Downloading the dataset
--------
Here's a minimal example of how to download the dataset. This is slightly worse than installing this repo with pip and generating it from scratch. It does have its uses. Sometimes I use it for double-checking that the procedurally generated dataset exactly matches the one used in the paper and blog post:
```
import requests, pickle
url = 'https://github.com/greydanus/mnist1d/raw/master/mnist1d_data.pkl'
r = requests.get(url, allow_redirects=True)
open('./mnist1d_data.pkl', 'wb').write(r.content)
with open('./mnist1d_data.pkl', 'rb') as handle:
data = pickle.load(handle)
data.keys()
>>> dict_keys(['x', 'x_test', 'y', 'y_test', 't', 'templates']) # these are NumPy arrays
```
Constructing the dataset
--------
This is a synthetically-generated dataset which, by default, consists of 4000 training examples and 1000 testing examples (you can change this as you wish). Each example contains a template pattern that resembles a handwritten digit between 0 and 9. These patterns are analogous to the digits in the original [MNIST dataset](http://yann.lecun.com/exdb/mnist/).
**Original MNIST digits**
**1D template patterns**
**1D templates as lines**
In order to build the synthetic dataset, we pass the templates through a series of random transformations. This includes adding random amounts of padding, translation, correlated noise, iid noise, and scaling. We use these transformations because they are relevant for both 1D signals and 2D images. So even though our dataset is 1D, we can expect some of our findings to hold for 2D (image) data. For example, we can study the advantage of using a translation-invariant model (eg. a CNN) by making a dataset where signals occur at different locations in the sequence. We can do this by using large padding and translation coefficients. Here's an animation of how those transformations are applied.
Unlike the original MNIST dataset, which consisted of 2D arrays of pixels (each image had 28x28=784 dimensions), this dataset consists of 1D timeseries of length 40. This means each example is ~20x smaller, making the dataset much quicker and easier to iterate over. Another nice thing about this toy dataset is that it does a good job of separating different types of deep learning models, many of which get the same 98-99% test accuracy on MNIST.
Example use cases
--------
### [Quantifying CNN spatial priors](https://githubtocolab.com/greydanus/mnist1d/blob/master/notebooks/mnist1d-classification.ipynb)
For a fixed number of training examples, we show that a CNN achieves far better test generalization than a comparable MLP. This highlights the value of the inductive biases that we build into ML models.
### [Finding lottery tickets](https://githubtocolab.com/greydanus/mnist1d/blob/master/notebooks/lottery-tickets.ipynb)
We obtain sparse "lottery ticket" masks as described by [Frankle & Carbin (2018)](https://arxiv.org/abs/1803.03635). Then we perform some ablation studies and analysis on them to determine exactly what makes these masks special (spoiler: they have spatial priors including local connectivity). One result, which contradicts the original paper, is that lottery ticket masks can be beneficial even under different initial weights. We suspect this effect is present but vanishingly small in the experiments performed by Frankle & Carbin.
### [Observing deep double descent](https://githubtocolab.com/greydanus/mnist1d/blob/master/notebooks/deep-double-descent.ipynb)
We replicate the "deep double descent" phenomenon described by [Belkin et al. (2018)](https://arxiv.org/abs/1812.11118) and more recently studied at scale by [Nakkiran et al. (2019)](https://openai.com/blog/deep-double-descent/).
### [Metalearning a learning rate](https://githubtocolab.com/greydanus/mnist1d/blob/master/notebooks/metalearn-learn-rate.ipynb)
A simple notebook that introduces gradient-based metalearning, also known as "unrolled optimization." In the spirit of [Maclaurin et al (2015)](http://proceedings.mlr.press/v37/maclaurin15.pdf) we use this technique to obtain the optimal learning rate for an MLP.
### [Metalearning an activation function](https://githubtocolab.com/greydanus/mnist1d/blob/master/notebooks/metalearn-activation-function.ipynb)
This project uses the same principles as the learning rate example, but tackles a new problem that (to our knowledge) has not been tackled via gradient-based metalearning: how to obtain the perfect nonlinearity for a neural network. We start from an ELU activation function and parameterize the offset with an MLP. We use unrolled optimization to find the offset that leads to lowest training loss, across the last 200 steps, for an MLP classifier trained on MNIST-1D. Interestingly, the result somewhat resembles the Swish activation described by [Ramachandran et al. (2017)](https://arxiv.org/abs/1710.05941); the main difference is a positive regime between -4 and -1.
### [Benchmarking pooling methods](https://githubtocolab.com/greydanus/mnist1d/blob/master/notebooks/benchmark-pooling.ipynb)
We investigate the relationship between number of training samples and usefulness of pooling methods. We find that pooling is typically very useful in the low-data regime but this advantage diminishes as the amount of training data increases.
Dependencies
--------
* NumPy
* SciPy
* PyTorch
* (others)
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"description": "The MNIST-1D Dataset\n=======\n\n[Blog post](https://greydanus.github.io/2020/12/01/scaling-down/) | [Paper](https://arxiv.org/abs/2011.14439) | [GitHub](https://github.com/greydanus/mnist1d)\n\n\nMost machine learning models get around the same ~99% test accuracy on MNIST. The dataset in this repo, MNIST-1D, is 20x smaller and does a better job of separating between models with/without nonlinearity and models with/without spatial inductive biases.\n\n_**Dec 5, 2023**: MNIST-1D is now a core teaching dataset in Simon Prince's [Understanding Deep Learning](https://udlbook.github.io/udlbook/) textbook_\n\n\n\nQuickstart and use cases\n--------\n* Getting started\n * [Quickstart](https://github.com/greydanus/mnist1d/blob/master/notebooks/quickstart.ipynb) ([Colab](https://githubtocolab.com/greydanus/mnist1d/blob/master/notebooks/quickstart.ipynb))\n * [Building MNIST-1D](https://github.com/greydanus/mnist1d/blob/master/notebooks/building-mnist1d.ipynb) ([Colab](https://githubtocolab.com/greydanus/mnist1d/blob/master/notebooks/building-mnist1d.ipynb))\n * [Pip installation (3 lines)](https://github.com/greydanus/mnist1d/blob/master/notebooks/mnist1d-pip.ipynb) ([Colab](https://githubtocolab.com/greydanus/mnist1d/blob/master/notebooks/mnist1d-pip.ipynb))\n* Example use cases\n * [Quantifying CNN spatial priors](https://github.com/greydanus/mnist1d/blob/master/notebooks/mnist1d-classification.ipynb) ([Colab](https://githubtocolab.com/greydanus/mnist1d/blob/master/notebooks/mnist1d-classification.ipynb))\n * [Self-supervised learning](https://github.com/greydanus/mnist1d/blob/master/notebooks/self-supervised-learning.ipynb) ([Colab](https://githubtocolab.com/greydanus/mnist1d/blob/master/notebooks/self-supervised-learning.ipynb))\n * [Finding lottery tickets](https://github.com/greydanus/mnist1d/blob/master/notebooks/lottery-tickets.ipynb) ([Colab](https://githubtocolab.com/greydanus/mnist1d/blob/master/notebooks/lottery-tickets.ipynb))\n * [Observing deep double descent](https://github.com/greydanus/mnist1d/blob/master/notebooks/deep-double-descent.ipynb) ([Colab](https://githubtocolab.com/greydanus/mnist1d/blob/master/notebooks/deep-double-descent.ipynb))\n * [Metalearning a learning rate](https://github.com/greydanus/mnist1d/blob/master/notebooks/metalearn-learn-rate.ipynb) ([Colab](https://githubtocolab.com/greydanus/mnist1d/blob/master/notebooks/metalearn-learn-rate.ipynb))\n * [Metalearning an activation function](https://github.com/greydanus/mnist1d/blob/master/notebooks/metalearn-activation-function.ipynb) ([Colab](https://githubtocolab.com/greydanus/mnist1d/blob/master/notebooks/metalearn-activation-function.ipynb))\n * [Benchmarking pooling methods](https://github.com/greydanus/mnist1d/blob/master/notebooks/benchmark-pooling.ipynb) ([Colab](https://githubtocolab.com/greydanus/mnist1d/blob/master/notebooks/benchmark-pooling.ipynb))\n* Community use cases\n * [TSNE: compare clustering of MNIST-1D vs. MNIST](https://github.com/greydanus/mnist1d/blob/master/notebooks/tsne-mnist-vs-mnist1d.ipynb) ([Colab](https://githubtocolab.com/greydanus/mnist1d/blob/master/notebooks/tsne-mnist-vs-mnist1d.ipynb))\n* Community use cases\n * [A from-scratch, Numpy-only MLP with handwritten backprop](https://colab.research.google.com/drive/1E4w9chTkK-rPK-Zl-D0t4Q3FrdpQrHRQ?usp=sharing)\n * [Simon Prince's _Understanding Deep Learning_](https://udlbook.github.io/udlbook/) textbook uses MNIST1D as a core teaching example\n * Send me a Colab link to your experiment and I'll feature it here.\n\n\nInstalling with `pip`\n--------\n\n``` shell\npip install mnist1d\n```\n\nThis allows you to build the default dataset locally:\n\n```python\nfrom mnist1d.data import make_dataset, get_dataset_args\n\ndefaults = get_dataset_args()\ndata = make_dataset(defaults)\nx,y,t = data['x'], data['y'], data['t']\n```\n\nIf you want to play around with this, see [notebooks/mnist1d-pip.ipynb](https://github.com/greydanus/mnist1d/blob/master/notebooks/mnist1d-pip.ipynb).\n\n\nAlternatively, you can always `pip install` via the GitHub repo:\n\n``` shell\npython -m pip install git+https://github.com/greydanus/mnist1d.git@master\n```\n\n\nComparing MNIST and MNIST-1D\n--------\n\n| Dataset\t\t| Logistic regression\t\t| MLP \t| CNN \t| GRU* | Human expert |\n| ------------- \t\t\t| :---------------: | :---------------: | :---------------: | :---------------: | :---------------: |\n| MNIST \t\t\t\t\t | 94% | 99+% | 99+% | 99+% | 99+% |\n| MNIST-1D \t\t\t\t\t | 32% | 68% | 94% | 91% | 96% |\n| MNIST-1D (shuffle**)\t| 32% | 68% | 56% | 57% | ~30% |\n\n*Training the GRU takes at least 10x the walltime of the CNN.\n\n**The term \"shuffle\" refers to shuffling the spatial dimension of the dataset, as in [Zhang et al. (2017)](https://arxiv.org/abs/1611.03530).\n\n\n-----------\n\nThe original MNIST dataset is supposed to be the [Drosophilia of machine learning](https://twitter.com/ivanukhov/status/639122460722528257) but it has a few drawbacks:\n* **Discrimination between models.** The difference between major ML models comes down to a few percentage points.\n* **Dimensionality.** Examples are 784-dimensional vectors so training ML models can take non-trivial compute and memory (think neural architecture search and metalearning).\n* **Hard to hack.** MNIST is not procedurally generated so it's hard to change the noise distribution, the scale/rotation/translation/shear/etc of the digits, or the resolution.\n\n We developed MNIST-1D to address these issues. It is:\n* **Discriminative between models.** There is a broad spread in test accuracy between key ML models.\n* **Low dimensional.** Each MNIST-1D example is a 40-dimensional vector. This means faster training and less memory.\n* **Easy to hack.** There's an API for adjusting max_translation, corr_noise_scale, shear_scale, final_seq_length and more. The code is clean and modular.\n* **Still has some real-world relevance.** Though it's low-dimensional and synthetic, this task is arguably more interesting than [Sklearn's datasets](https://scikit-learn.org/stable/modules/classes.html#module-sklearn.datasets) such as two_moons, two_circles, or gaussian_blobs.\n\nDimensionality reduction\n--------\n\nVisualizing the MNIST and MNIST-1D datasets with tSNE. The well-defined clusters in the MNIST plot indicate that the majority of the examples are separable via a kNN classifier in pixel space. The MNIST-1D plot, meanwhile, reveals a lack of well-defined clusters which suggests that learning a nonlinear representation of the data is much more important to achieve successful classification.\n\n\n\nThanks to [Dmitry Kobak](https://twitter.com/hippopedoid) for this contribution.\n\n\nDownloading the dataset\n--------\n\nHere's a minimal example of how to download the dataset. This is slightly worse than installing this repo with pip and generating it from scratch. It does have its uses. Sometimes I use it for double-checking that the procedurally generated dataset exactly matches the one used in the paper and blog post:\n\n```\nimport requests, pickle\n\nurl = 'https://github.com/greydanus/mnist1d/raw/master/mnist1d_data.pkl'\nr = requests.get(url, allow_redirects=True)\nopen('./mnist1d_data.pkl', 'wb').write(r.content)\n\nwith open('./mnist1d_data.pkl', 'rb') as handle:\n data = pickle.load(handle)\n \ndata.keys()\n\n>>> dict_keys(['x', 'x_test', 'y', 'y_test', 't', 'templates']) # these are NumPy arrays\n```\n\n\nConstructing the dataset\n--------\n\nThis is a synthetically-generated dataset which, by default, consists of 4000 training examples and 1000 testing examples (you can change this as you wish). Each example contains a template pattern that resembles a handwritten digit between 0 and 9. These patterns are analogous to the digits in the original [MNIST dataset](http://yann.lecun.com/exdb/mnist/).\n\n**Original MNIST digits**\n\n\n\n**1D template patterns**\n\n\n\n**1D templates as lines**\n\n\n\nIn order to build the synthetic dataset, we pass the templates through a series of random transformations. This includes adding random amounts of padding, translation, correlated noise, iid noise, and scaling. We use these transformations because they are relevant for both 1D signals and 2D images. So even though our dataset is 1D, we can expect some of our findings to hold for 2D (image) data. For example, we can study the advantage of using a translation-invariant model (eg. a CNN) by making a dataset where signals occur at different locations in the sequence. We can do this by using large padding and translation coefficients. Here's an animation of how those transformations are applied.\n\n\n\nUnlike the original MNIST dataset, which consisted of 2D arrays of pixels (each image had 28x28=784 dimensions), this dataset consists of 1D timeseries of length 40. This means each example is ~20x smaller, making the dataset much quicker and easier to iterate over. Another nice thing about this toy dataset is that it does a good job of separating different types of deep learning models, many of which get the same 98-99% test accuracy on MNIST.\n\n\nExample use cases\n--------\n\n### [Quantifying CNN spatial priors](https://githubtocolab.com/greydanus/mnist1d/blob/master/notebooks/mnist1d-classification.ipynb)\nFor a fixed number of training examples, we show that a CNN achieves far better test generalization than a comparable MLP. This highlights the value of the inductive biases that we build into ML models.\n\n\n\n### [Finding lottery tickets](https://githubtocolab.com/greydanus/mnist1d/blob/master/notebooks/lottery-tickets.ipynb)\nWe obtain sparse \"lottery ticket\" masks as described by [Frankle & Carbin (2018)](https://arxiv.org/abs/1803.03635). Then we perform some ablation studies and analysis on them to determine exactly what makes these masks special (spoiler: they have spatial priors including local connectivity). One result, which contradicts the original paper, is that lottery ticket masks can be beneficial even under different initial weights. We suspect this effect is present but vanishingly small in the experiments performed by Frankle & Carbin.\n\n\n\n\n\n### [Observing deep double descent](https://githubtocolab.com/greydanus/mnist1d/blob/master/notebooks/deep-double-descent.ipynb)\nWe replicate the \"deep double descent\" phenomenon described by [Belkin et al. (2018)](https://arxiv.org/abs/1812.11118) and more recently studied at scale by [Nakkiran et al. (2019)](https://openai.com/blog/deep-double-descent/).\n\n\n\n### [Metalearning a learning rate](https://githubtocolab.com/greydanus/mnist1d/blob/master/notebooks/metalearn-learn-rate.ipynb)\nA simple notebook that introduces gradient-based metalearning, also known as \"unrolled optimization.\" In the spirit of [Maclaurin et al (2015)](http://proceedings.mlr.press/v37/maclaurin15.pdf) we use this technique to obtain the optimal learning rate for an MLP.\n\n\n\n### [Metalearning an activation function](https://githubtocolab.com/greydanus/mnist1d/blob/master/notebooks/metalearn-activation-function.ipynb)\nThis project uses the same principles as the learning rate example, but tackles a new problem that (to our knowledge) has not been tackled via gradient-based metalearning: how to obtain the perfect nonlinearity for a neural network. We start from an ELU activation function and parameterize the offset with an MLP. We use unrolled optimization to find the offset that leads to lowest training loss, across the last 200 steps, for an MLP classifier trained on MNIST-1D. Interestingly, the result somewhat resembles the Swish activation described by [Ramachandran et al. (2017)](https://arxiv.org/abs/1710.05941); the main difference is a positive regime between -4 and -1.\n\n\n\n### [Benchmarking pooling methods](https://githubtocolab.com/greydanus/mnist1d/blob/master/notebooks/benchmark-pooling.ipynb)\nWe investigate the relationship between number of training samples and usefulness of pooling methods. We find that pooling is typically very useful in the low-data regime but this advantage diminishes as the amount of training data increases.\n\n\n\n\nDependencies\n--------\n * NumPy\n * SciPy\n * PyTorch\n * (others)\n",
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